THE BEGIN OF THE WAR ON THE LAND
OF CUBA
The US relied on its naval power when starting the war against Spain. The American navy in the North Atlantic, consisting of big warships such as Indiana, Iowa, Massachusetts, and Oregon, was much better equipped and had much greater mobility than the Spanish navy in the region, which consisted of old warships. Spain's fleet consisted mostly of coast guard gunboats and small cruisers.
The war between Spain and the USA began on May 1, 1898, with US forces occupying Manila Bay in the Philippines, far from Cuba. On the same day, in Bayamo, Lieutenant Colonel Andrew Summers Rowan, representing the US army, and General Calixto García, commander of the Liberation Army, met and discussed common goals and mutual assistance between the two armies and agreed on many important issues.
As for the Cuban front of the war, the first combat between American and Spanish forces took place on May 11, 1898, in the port of Cienfuegos. The reason why Cienfuegos was chosen is that the underwater communication cables connecting Cuba with Spain and the Spanish-dominated regions in the Caribbean were passing here. In preparation for the subsequent operation against the main target, Santiago de Cuba, these cables would be destroyed and the island's ability to communicate with Spain would be restricted.
The battleships USS Marblehead and the USS Nashville were assigned to this limited action. Despite having a serious skirmish with Spanish soldiers, American soldiers could cut two of the three cables. Thus, communication between Cuba and Spain became seriously affected.
When the US North Atlantic Fleet, commanded by Rear Admiral William Thomas Sampson, arrived off the coast of Santiago de Cuba, the “flying squadron” under the command of Commodore Winfield Scott closed the mouth of Santiago de Cuba Bay. The aim was to jam the Spanish navy (Flota de Ultramar), consisting of four cruisers (Cristóbal Colón, Infanta Maria Teresa, Almirante Oquendo, and Vizcaya) and three destroyers (Reina Mercedes, Furor and Pluto) commanded by Admiral Pascual Cevera, in the gulf. Admiral Pascual Cevera, who set out from Cadiz, Spain, had received the order to continue sailing towards the West Indies from his current location in Cape Verde on April 23, and had stopped in Santiago de Cuba Bay, a safe harbor, at the beginning of May. According to the plan of the Americans, an army consisting of soldiers and volunteers from the 9th and 10th Divisions transferred from Tampa would land to the east of Santiago de Cuba. Thus, the Spaniards would be trapped by sea and land, and they would either surrender or disembark and fight.
The Americans tried to sink the collier USS Merrimac in the harbor to further pressure the Spanish fleet, but they failed and American soldiers, including their commander, were captured by the Spanish.
Of course, to reach Santiago de Cuba, American soldiers had to neutralize the Spanish forces that were densely deployed in the San Juan hill and El Caney. For accomplish this, the Americans needed the support of the Cubans. The Liberation Army, headed by General Calixto García, was in the opinion that if the war between the USA and Spain was won by the Americans, the necessary conditions for Cuba's independence would be created. Although commanders were cautious about US’ intentions, the overwhelming support of the American public was convincing that the US was determined to help the Cubans to achieve the independence. The bloody interventions of the Spanish governments for years, and especially the concentration in camps policy implemented by the Cuban governor General Valeriano Weyler in recent years, that is, forcing the Cubans to live in certain concentration centers, inevitably pushed the islanders to side with the USA.
THE FIRST STAGE OF COMBINED LAND OPERATION: GUANTÁNAMO AND CUZCO WELLS
Rear Admiral William Thomas Sampson, sent the cruisers USS Marblehead, commanded by Bowman H. McCalla, and USS St. Louis and Yankee, commanded by Willard H. Brownson to Guantánamo Bay, with the mission of establishing a naval base there. USS St. Louis' mission was also to cut the cables connecting Cuba to Haiti and the outside world at Fisherman's Point. The American navy, which had Santiago de Cuba as its main target, needed a suitable port to be protected from the hurricane season; Guantánamo Bay was a place that could serve this function perfectly.
On June 6 the cruisers left the American navy that was waiting off the coast of Santiago de Cuba and arrived in C. With the fire opened by three American warships, the Spanish soldiers that had gathered around the blockhouse on the hill known as McCalla Hill, were neutralized and the castle in Cayo del Toro was severely damaged. The Spanish warships Alvarado and Sandoval couldn’t intervene against the firepower of the American warships.
Guantánamo's connection with the outside world was cut off, as American soldiers cut all cables. Here they learned from the Cuban soldiers, sent by General Calixto García, the commander of the Liberation Army, that the Cuban forces, whose outposts occupied positions on the coast from the mouth of the Yateras River to a point 15 miles (24 km) west of Santiago, were at the disposition of the U.S. Commander-in-Chief. Commander McCalla thereafter maintained close contact, through Chief of Staff Colonel Vieta, with General Pedro Pérez, who commanded Cuban forces around Guantánamo City.
The US relied on its naval power when starting the war against Spain. The American navy in the North Atlantic, consisting of big warships such as Indiana, Iowa, Massachusetts, and Oregon, was much better equipped and had much greater mobility than the Spanish navy in the region, which consisted of old warships. Spain's fleet consisted mostly of coast guard gunboats and small cruisers.
The war between Spain and the USA began on May 1, 1898, with US forces occupying Manila Bay in the Philippines, far from Cuba. On the same day, in Bayamo, Lieutenant Colonel Andrew Summers Rowan, representing the US army, and General Calixto García, commander of the Liberation Army, met and discussed common goals and mutual assistance between the two armies and agreed on many important issues.
As for the Cuban front of the war, the first combat between American and Spanish forces took place on May 11, 1898, in the port of Cienfuegos. The reason why Cienfuegos was chosen is that the underwater communication cables connecting Cuba with Spain and the Spanish-dominated regions in the Caribbean were passing here. In preparation for the subsequent operation against the main target, Santiago de Cuba, these cables would be destroyed and the island's ability to communicate with Spain would be restricted.
The battleships USS Marblehead and the USS Nashville were assigned to this limited action. Despite having a serious skirmish with Spanish soldiers, American soldiers could cut two of the three cables. Thus, communication between Cuba and Spain became seriously affected.
When the US North Atlantic Fleet, commanded by Rear Admiral William Thomas Sampson, arrived off the coast of Santiago de Cuba, the “flying squadron” under the command of Commodore Winfield Scott closed the mouth of Santiago de Cuba Bay. The aim was to jam the Spanish navy (Flota de Ultramar), consisting of four cruisers (Cristóbal Colón, Infanta Maria Teresa, Almirante Oquendo, and Vizcaya) and three destroyers (Reina Mercedes, Furor and Pluto) commanded by Admiral Pascual Cevera, in the gulf. Admiral Pascual Cevera, who set out from Cadiz, Spain, had received the order to continue sailing towards the West Indies from his current location in Cape Verde on April 23, and had stopped in Santiago de Cuba Bay, a safe harbor, at the beginning of May. According to the plan of the Americans, an army consisting of soldiers and volunteers from the 9th and 10th Divisions transferred from Tampa would land to the east of Santiago de Cuba. Thus, the Spaniards would be trapped by sea and land, and they would either surrender or disembark and fight.
The Americans tried to sink the collier USS Merrimac in the harbor to further pressure the Spanish fleet, but they failed and American soldiers, including their commander, were captured by the Spanish.
Of course, to reach Santiago de Cuba, American soldiers had to neutralize the Spanish forces that were densely deployed in the San Juan hill and El Caney. For accomplish this, the Americans needed the support of the Cubans. The Liberation Army, headed by General Calixto García, was in the opinion that if the war between the USA and Spain was won by the Americans, the necessary conditions for Cuba's independence would be created. Although commanders were cautious about US’ intentions, the overwhelming support of the American public was convincing that the US was determined to help the Cubans to achieve the independence. The bloody interventions of the Spanish governments for years, and especially the concentration in camps policy implemented by the Cuban governor General Valeriano Weyler in recent years, that is, forcing the Cubans to live in certain concentration centers, inevitably pushed the islanders to side with the USA.
THE FIRST STAGE OF COMBINED LAND OPERATION: GUANTÁNAMO AND CUZCO WELLS
Rear Admiral William Thomas Sampson, sent the cruisers USS Marblehead, commanded by Bowman H. McCalla, and USS St. Louis and Yankee, commanded by Willard H. Brownson to Guantánamo Bay, with the mission of establishing a naval base there. USS St. Louis' mission was also to cut the cables connecting Cuba to Haiti and the outside world at Fisherman's Point. The American navy, which had Santiago de Cuba as its main target, needed a suitable port to be protected from the hurricane season; Guantánamo Bay was a place that could serve this function perfectly.
On June 6 the cruisers left the American navy that was waiting off the coast of Santiago de Cuba and arrived in C. With the fire opened by three American warships, the Spanish soldiers that had gathered around the blockhouse on the hill known as McCalla Hill, were neutralized and the castle in Cayo del Toro was severely damaged. The Spanish warships Alvarado and Sandoval couldn’t intervene against the firepower of the American warships.
Guantánamo's connection with the outside world was cut off, as American soldiers cut all cables. Here they learned from the Cuban soldiers, sent by General Calixto García, the commander of the Liberation Army, that the Cuban forces, whose outposts occupied positions on the coast from the mouth of the Yateras River to a point 15 miles (24 km) west of Santiago, were at the disposition of the U.S. Commander-in-Chief. Commander McCalla thereafter maintained close contact, through Chief of Staff Colonel Vieta, with General Pedro Pérez, who commanded Cuban forces around Guantánamo City.
On June 9 the marines of the First Naval Battalion in Key West
under the command of Robert W. Huntington arrived off the coast
of Santiago de Cuba on the ship USS Panther that was converted
into a ship convenient for such a transport. Bowman H. McCalla,
commander of USS Marblehead, approved the camp site at
Guantánamo Bay determined by his aides; it was named after him
(Camp McCalla).
On June 10, the Americans landed without encountering any resistance and established two outposts around the camp. To prevent the possibility of yellow fever, the marines burned the remains of the village's simple huts and blockhouse with all their contents. The Spaniards fled in such haste that they had left behind their clothes, money, jewels, and weapons.
However, this glorious landing was full of tactical errors. The established outposts could not see each other and were unlikely to provide mutual support. No trench was dug, as no attack was expected. Additionally, under heavy fire, the Americans had no place to retreat because their back was the sea. More importantly, the thorny bushes and cactus-covered land in front of them was limiting their mobility. The occupying troops wore uniforms made of pure black wool, but it was around 30 degrees Celsius in Santiago de Cuba at the time. It was impossible for this maddening heat not to affect military operations.
At dawn on June 11, and before the American soldiers had even unloaded the artillery pieces and their ammunition from the ship, the Spanish attacked. They advanced to the camp by firing volleys through dense bushes with rapid-firing Mauser rifles. American soldiers were in a very difficult situation as the camp area, located on the sands of the open beach, created an ideal target for snipers hidden in the bushes.
On June 12, Spanish soldiers approached within 50 meters of the camp. Fortunately, the next day (June 13), 60 Cuban soldiers under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Enrique Thomas came to the rescue and saved the American soldiers from this hell. The Cubans advanced by burning the bushes, thus leaving no place for the Spanish soldiers to hide. By the evening of June 13, the American marines, who had not slept for nearly 100 hours, were exhausted from fatigue and heat.
The day before the Spanish attack on the camp, Colonel Laborde Lt. of the Cuban Liberation Army, told Lt. Col. Huntington that the main Spanish force in the region was in Cuzco Wells, approximately 3 km away from Fisherman's Point, that had the only fresh water source in the region. This force of 500 soldiers, combined with the soldiers that had escaped from the blockhouse, posed a great threat to the American military camp. According to Laborde, if Cuzco Wells would be captured, the Spanish would have to retreat to the city of Guantánamo.
After the commanders were convinced, the Americans and Cubans attacked Cuzco Wells together on June 14. Gunboat USS Dolphin was given the task of supporting the attack from the sea. After very bloody clashes, the Spanish, who suffered serious losses of soldiers and ammunition, were forced to retreat to Guantánamo city in small groups.
After the success of establishment of a military camp at Guantánamo Bay and the capture of Cuzco Wells, attention was soon focused on other areas of the bay. In this context, it was decided to destroy Fort Toro with bombardment, because in the meantime the Spanish managed to build a military concentration on Cayo del Toro again. On June 16, USS Texas and Yankee joined USS Marblehead and completely destroyed the castle and buildings on the island by bombarding them. In addition, the island surroundings were cleared of all mines laid by the Spanish.
The Spanish, who suffered heavy losses and were deprived of support, were eventually forced to withdraw from Camp McCalla.
On June 19, the Liberation Army, consisting of 4.000 men, under the command of General Calixto García, arrived in the region. Their mission was to provide protection, support, and guidance to US forces on landing.
US troops, consisting of 819 officers and 15.058 soldiers under the command of Major General William Rufus Shafter, were not prepared for operations such as landings, and the war was hastily declared. In contrast, the Spanish troops had sufficient experience, were better acclimatized and dominated the areas of operations by heart, since they had extensive knowledge of the terrain to be conquered.
On June 10, the Americans landed without encountering any resistance and established two outposts around the camp. To prevent the possibility of yellow fever, the marines burned the remains of the village's simple huts and blockhouse with all their contents. The Spaniards fled in such haste that they had left behind their clothes, money, jewels, and weapons.
However, this glorious landing was full of tactical errors. The established outposts could not see each other and were unlikely to provide mutual support. No trench was dug, as no attack was expected. Additionally, under heavy fire, the Americans had no place to retreat because their back was the sea. More importantly, the thorny bushes and cactus-covered land in front of them was limiting their mobility. The occupying troops wore uniforms made of pure black wool, but it was around 30 degrees Celsius in Santiago de Cuba at the time. It was impossible for this maddening heat not to affect military operations.
At dawn on June 11, and before the American soldiers had even unloaded the artillery pieces and their ammunition from the ship, the Spanish attacked. They advanced to the camp by firing volleys through dense bushes with rapid-firing Mauser rifles. American soldiers were in a very difficult situation as the camp area, located on the sands of the open beach, created an ideal target for snipers hidden in the bushes.
On June 12, Spanish soldiers approached within 50 meters of the camp. Fortunately, the next day (June 13), 60 Cuban soldiers under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Enrique Thomas came to the rescue and saved the American soldiers from this hell. The Cubans advanced by burning the bushes, thus leaving no place for the Spanish soldiers to hide. By the evening of June 13, the American marines, who had not slept for nearly 100 hours, were exhausted from fatigue and heat.
The day before the Spanish attack on the camp, Colonel Laborde Lt. of the Cuban Liberation Army, told Lt. Col. Huntington that the main Spanish force in the region was in Cuzco Wells, approximately 3 km away from Fisherman's Point, that had the only fresh water source in the region. This force of 500 soldiers, combined with the soldiers that had escaped from the blockhouse, posed a great threat to the American military camp. According to Laborde, if Cuzco Wells would be captured, the Spanish would have to retreat to the city of Guantánamo.
After the commanders were convinced, the Americans and Cubans attacked Cuzco Wells together on June 14. Gunboat USS Dolphin was given the task of supporting the attack from the sea. After very bloody clashes, the Spanish, who suffered serious losses of soldiers and ammunition, were forced to retreat to Guantánamo city in small groups.
After the success of establishment of a military camp at Guantánamo Bay and the capture of Cuzco Wells, attention was soon focused on other areas of the bay. In this context, it was decided to destroy Fort Toro with bombardment, because in the meantime the Spanish managed to build a military concentration on Cayo del Toro again. On June 16, USS Texas and Yankee joined USS Marblehead and completely destroyed the castle and buildings on the island by bombarding them. In addition, the island surroundings were cleared of all mines laid by the Spanish.
The Spanish, who suffered heavy losses and were deprived of support, were eventually forced to withdraw from Camp McCalla.
On June 19, the Liberation Army, consisting of 4.000 men, under the command of General Calixto García, arrived in the region. Their mission was to provide protection, support, and guidance to US forces on landing.
US troops, consisting of 819 officers and 15.058 soldiers under the command of Major General William Rufus Shafter, were not prepared for operations such as landings, and the war was hastily declared. In contrast, the Spanish troops had sufficient experience, were better acclimatized and dominated the areas of operations by heart, since they had extensive knowledge of the terrain to be conquered.